By Rigden Glaab, MA RPA
Westwood Professional Services
Chairperson of the Registrant Services and Outreach Committee

Archaeologists work under a specific set of conditions that differs from other industries. We operate in a hybrid environment that ranges from active construction zones to remote surveys. While our general safety training is useful, I feel it is important to highlight specific aspects relevant to cultural resource management.      

1)      CPR Training and First Aid. Archaeologists should complete safety courses that provide core training relevant to performing fieldwork. CPR and First Aid are key classes to take when developing practical medical skills. If possible, attend advanced wilderness training, such as those offered by the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) and other organizations. These groups teach survival applications that apply to our day-to-day work as archaeologists (NOLS Courses - NOLS).    
2)     Vehicle Safety. Driving is a major hazard that archaeologists face during fieldwork. Always give yourself enough time to drive safely and within the speed limit to a project. When possible, have others navigate so you can concentrate on the road. Enjoy your morning at a moderate pace by creating a routine that suits your lifestyle before work (e.g., favorite podcasts, coffee). Practice safe driving habits by being vigilant about consistent turn signal use, active traffic awareness, not crowding vehicles, keeping headlights on, watching out for animals, and staying off your phone. Defensive and courteous driving are the best practices to ensure a safe trip.
A critical moment where accidents can occur happens each time we park vehicles on a survey. We are often confronted with narrow road shoulders and small agricultural turnoffs into fields. Never block access points and park to the side in case the road is needed while you are working. These situations present challenges to consider when organizing crew. Use safety cones and avoid parking on the slope of hills where oncoming traffic cannot see you. Put a business card or other sign on your window to communicate your presence. If an individual drives up to talk, such as a landowner, I try to move the discussion to a safe parking spot on the side of the road.  
3)     Dog Safety (Part A-Good Dogs). I love dogs and think they are wonderful animals. I have also encountered dogs that are not so amazing while doing fieldwork. We may run into dogs belonging to landowners from various backgrounds. Friendly farm and ranch dogs will sometimes follow for miles getting stranded from their home. This places staff in an awkward position about how to safely return the animal. As much as I like dogs, I feel we should not pet or encourage them to follow unless given permission by a landowner. Dogs will chase vehicles barking and biting at tires; use caution arriving/departing so they are not harmed.     
4)     Dog Safety (Part B-Bad Dogs). I have experienced a situation where a landowner was intoxicated and unable to control his dog, which subsequently chased me through a field. Aggressive breeds (e.g., pit bulls, German Shepards, rottweilers, chows, etc.) are notoriously protective. In rural settings, dogs may not get many visitors outside of their owners. Quickly identify aggressive dogs, communicate their location, and create a wide avoidance buffer to ensure crew safety. I would recommend 200 meters. Notify the client if issues persist with questionable dogs.
5)      Large Mammal Threats (e.g., cattle, horses, bears, moose, etc.). A common component of our fieldwork involves locations where large, and sometimes hostile, animals are present. Livestock are deceptively aggressive based on the breed of cattle (such as black angus [typically docile] versus brahma [potentially aggressive]). Bulls should be given a wide berth when walking through those pastures. Communicate to your team if a herd is present near their location. Treat horses with equal caution; even the small Shetland pony can hurt you. Similar to dogs, I feel livestock should not be approached without consent of the owner.
Feral pigs are a problem for archaeologists in the eastern and southern United States. It is essential to make noise and give identified hogs plenty of space. Surveys can go through dense brush increasing the potential to startle a sounder. Pay close attention to your surroundings—listening (Wild Boar Sounds & Calls - The grunts, growls, screams & squeals of wild pigs in a forest - YouTube) and looking (Recognizing feral hog sign) for the presence of swine.
Bear safety is imperative in northern and mountainous regions. The International Grizzly Bear Committee has excellent guidance for best practices when passing through bear country (Be Bear Aware - Interagency Grizzly Bear Committee (IGBC)). Elk, bison, and moose can also pose significant threats (How Close Can I Get to Elk and Moose in Rocky Mountain Park?). You should have an exit strategy or alternative route in mind when walking through an area where large game may be present.
6)     Crossing Fences. This is a major source of injury for archaeologists. I regularly tear my pants, cut my legs, and scratch my arms crossing barbwire fences. (Bonus Tip: Get good at sewing! This will save you a lot of money on field gear.) Whenever possible, the safest method to cross a fence is having someone hold the strands apart. This is difficult crossing well-made fences. I suggest attachable t-post steps that make going over safer and more manageable (SAFE-T-STEPPER - Home). I try to avoid crossing fences by stepping where the strands are wired to the t-post. This is extremely dangerous if the wires slip while you are going over. I remember a story told to me by an archaeologist who impaled himself in high school on a t-post crossing a fence.
7)      Snakes. Poisonous snakes pose a significant risk to archaeologists. Snake guards are an effective way to prevent bites, and regular use is recommended during fieldwork. These range from versions with a hard plastic shell (least popular) to flexible canvas types (most popular). I would recommend asking your coworkers about their favorite guards. I use a version of snake guard called TurtleSkin, which I like for its light weight and ability to be folded (SnakeArmor - Warwick Turtleskin). This is very convenient for flying when space is limited. CrackShot is another brand I have seen used by archaeologists (https://crackshotcorp.com/). Never reach or step blindly into areas where a snake might be present, such as while walking over a ledge or a log. Snakes can easily strike the length of a shovel, so please do not use this tool to move or disturb their location. I avoid and never harm snakes.
8)     Poisonous Insects. Ah, the bane of the archaeologist. We are constantly getting bitten and exposed to a wide range of insects that cause harm. Tick-borne illnesses, such as Lyme Disease (borreliosis) and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (spotted fever rickettsiosis), can have a lasting negative impact on your life. Use masking tape and tweezers to remove ticks.  Mosquito-borne diseases, including West Nile virus (Orthoflavivirus nilense), are another challenge we face in archaeology. Insect netting, bug bracelets, long-sleeve clothing, permethrin, and DEET spray are common strategies to limit exposure. All these methods work, but in my opinion DEET is the gold standard. I would recommend repellents that have at least 20 percent concentration or higher. I have found that 100 percent DEET is too strong for skin applications and is best reserved for clothes. DEET is the only product I have found that truly works, although it smells and you are putting chemicals on your body. If in a consistent setting, such as an excavation, consider burning mosquito coils which are useful to keep bugs away. Natural insect repellents are effective for a short duration but require frequent reapplication (e.g., lemon eucalyptus oil, citronella, lavender, and peppermint oil). Go DEET and be bug-free!  
9)     Poisonous Plants. “Just identify in the field and avoid them.” I have heard this countless times but never found it realistic advice on a survey. What we usually encounter is a tangled mass of vegetation mixed with poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), poison oak (Toxicodendron spp.), and/or poison sumac (Toxicodendron vernix). I am extremely sensitive to urushiol, which is the poisonous oily resin found in these plants. Use the head of your shovel to bat down or push away vegetation. Another common task where I have seen archaeologists contact poisonous plants is while we screen for artifacts. Wear hand protection screening soil and focus on not contaminating the interior of the glove.
If you are exposed, as impractical as this may be, I recommend immediately washing your clothes in hot water with detergent and taking a shower at the hotel. Remember you can have urushiol on your belt, boots, and hat, so figure out a way to clean these items too. In a pinch, I have used hotel shampoo/soap to wash field gear in the bathtub. Take care not to splash and concentrate water runoff down the drain. Ideally you should wear latex gloves.
DO NOT wear field clothes and collapse onto your bed after a long day of fieldwork. I did this once. After multiple attempts washing the bedding, I was still exposed to the poison almost three years later. I had to throw everything out. (Bonus Tip: Scratching will only extend your suffering and must be avoided to ensure the wounds heal quickly. I recommend putting socks on your hands if you lack control like me when sleeping.) Go-to remedies are hydrocortisone cream, calamine lotion, and post-exposure treatments (Ivy X Post-Contact Skin Cleanser - CoreTex Products). I have obtained prescription-grade hydrocortisone cream and topical steroids from a doctor in the past, which is another option if your rash is significant.   
10)  Precontact and Postcontact Site Safey. Precontact sites do not typically contain artifacts that create safety concerns beyond sharp lithic tools. Numerous precontact sites are inside rock shelters and near the edges of steep cliffs that pose fall hazards. Various animals live in natural overhangs (e.g., snakes, mountain lions, bears, etc.). Cave Disease (histoplasmosis) and Valley Fever (coccidioidomycosis) are associated with fungal spores found in rock shelters and enclosed spaces. Proper ventilation and other mitigation techniques (e.g., respirators/masks) should be considered prior to entering these environments.   
Recording postcontact sites presents a unique set of challenges for archaeologists. Protruding nails, rusted metal, broken glass, and deep holes are among the dangers that must be navigated while documenting a given resource. Vegetation can obscure sharp objects. Puncture-resistant insoles are a solution used in the construction industry to address this issue (ARMOR-STEP INSOLE PUNCTURE D M11-12W13-15 FOAM | Magid Glove). Metatarsal/toe guard boots also provide protection and are a requirement on some projects. Toxic substances can be found on sites such as farmsteads, which pose skin contact and inhalation issues (e.g., oil drums, asbestos, agricultural chemicals, lead paint, etc.). Abandoned buildings are a habitat for wildlife. Actively communicate any problems to your team members if you see a safety concern on an archaeological site.
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